【营销管理本科】中英文《市场营销学》--清华大学
Part IAbout Marketing
Chapter 1Production and Development of MarketingFocus on: 1. What are the connotation and features of marketing?2. What is the main pathway on which marketing evolves? 3. Discuss the contributions to marketing by classical schools, management schools and behavior schools. 4. Analyze the concerns for marketing by commodity research approach, functional research approach, institutional research approach, management research approach and systematical research approach. 1.1
Production of Marketing As an applied science, marketing is based both on such theories as management, psychology, and sociology and on the social practice. Its origin, development and application depend on the marketing practice of the firm and also react on it. The scholars at home and abroad have been making an extensive and deep study of the birth and growth of the marketing idea, of which the exploration of marketing by Peter Druke, a famous professor in management in the Western University of the United States is well established by many marketing experts.
Peter Druke thought that the marketing was originated in Japan during the 17th century. He also pointed out that until the mid of the 19th century, the marketing came into being in the United States, and that in the western countries, the first that regards the marketing as a distinctive function of the firm and the satisfaction of the customer’s demands as the special task of management is Cyrus H. McCormick (1809-1884), the harvester inventor in the United States.
Besides, Cyrus H. McCormick invested the basic tools of the modern marketing, i.e. market research and analysis, market positioning concepts, pricing policies, supplying parts and various services for customers and providing them with the payment credit by installments, etc. Half century passed and the marketing has been studied systematically and used widely in the firms in the United States. By the end of 19th century, the scholars in the United States had started to issue and publish some theories as promotion, products, ads, pricing, product designs, brand business, package and physical distribution and so on. At the beginning of the early 20th century, “Marketing” had been up on the stage of the universities in the United States. For example, W. E. Kreusi taught a course named “The Marketing of Products” in the University of Pennsylvania in 1905; R. S. Butler in the University of Wisconsin taught “Marketing Methods” in 1910. Butler said that personnel promotion and ads must relate to the final outcome of the selling concept. In 1912, the Harvard University published the first teaching book of the marketing written by J. E. Hagertgy in the world, in which the issues about promotion, distribution, and ads, etc. were discussed comprehensively. As soon as the book was spread, a great response from the enterprise was made. Some of them established marketing departments in their organization such as Curtis Publishing Company in 1911, U. S. Rubber Company in 1916, etc. However, the study on the marketing of this time is mostly based on the seller market which is quite different from the principles and concepts of modern marketing. Moreover, the content is narrow and limited in goods distribution and advertisement promotion, etc. So the principles, concepts and discipline systems of the modern marketing are still to be built. From the 30s of the 20th century, marketing has been emphasized and different points and views and research approaches of various schools have been put forward successively. Then, the serious economic crisis broke out in the western world. The goods of the manufacturer couldn’t be sold out, firms broke down one after another, and the unemployed increased greatly. All this led to grave problems in selling the products. So, some theoretic researchers in economy were engaged in solving these social economic problems. However, the scholars were still limited in studying the circulation field. Namely, they laid emphasis on the question how to promote the products produced in a larger scale and on the know-how of promotion, advertisements, and promoting tactics.
In this period, marketing organizations with various forms were set up one after another in the United States. In 1937, American Marketing Association
(AMA) was founded, in which not only the learners who were engaged in the economic theory research but also the managers of all walks of life joined to make a conjoint study of the marketing theories and their application. At the same time, the special research class was established to teach the managers of enterprises the marketing course in order to train the promoter. In this way, the marketing was determined as a discipline. The theoretical systems of the marketing were initially constructed, too.
1.2
Development of Marketing In forming and developing the marketing theories, classical schools, management schools and behavior schools, etc. were born gradually. Different schools have established their own views, features and specialties because of the research method, interests, importance, and the individual background. They have been accelerating the development and progress of the marketing theory jointly, promoting the set-up and improvement of the marketing system as a discipline. They have contributed much in establishing and upgrading the marketing.
1.2.1
Classical Schools Inthe period of the founding of marketing theories the classical schools formed,namely the commodity school, the functional school，the regional school，the institutional school and so on. The classical schools played a historical role in establishing and developing the marketing. Although lots of new schools are coming up, the classical schools still remain well known in the academic field. 1. Commodity School Among these schools, the commodity school enjoys a long history. It started at the entrance of the 20th century. Its basic principle is that since the marketing concerns the flow of the relative goods from producers to consumers, the marketing discipline should focus on the object (product) transaction. As the scholars of the early commodity school said, that if the products in the marketing exchange could be classified in a reasonable way, the marketing discipline would make more progress in science. So they pointed out that in a perfect classified system of merchandizes, each product was not isolated and sophisticated links existed among goods. Therefore, these goods can be arranged into the category with the relative homogeneity in which all the products can be marketed in the same methods and know-how. As for the commodity school, it is an important task to classify the merchandizes. In the early stage of the commodity school, Charles Parlin first put forward the merchandize classification framework in 1912. According to his theory, women merchandizes can be divided into three categories: convenient goods, urgent goods and option goods. The convenient goods are those daily bought as food, groceries, etc. The urgent goods include medicines and those needed unexpectedly. The option goods refer to those that need to make a selection and that allow to be postponed buying. In 1923, another famous classification of the merchandize was proposed by M. Cope. He classified the merchandize into convenience, option and peculiarity. The convenience can be found in the convenient shop and familiar to the customer; the option is the goods that the consumer always makes a careful comparison of price, quality and patterns of the product before buying decisions. After the birth of demands, the real buying behavior is often delayed and their satisfaction is less important than that of the convenience; the peculiarity is more attractive in distinctiveness than in price to consumers. The consumer pays more attention to the producer’s and the retailer’s brand or credit and service quality than the other elements in buying. In 1958, L.V. Aspinwall, a famous scholar of the commodity school proposed a method of classifying the goods. He divided the goods into the red, the orange and the yellow and also ordered them in the light of the total relative value of the product features. These features were introduced as follows: (1)
turnover rate. The proportion that the customers choose and use a certain product is made to satisfy their needs.(2)
aggregate profits. The final difference is realized between the price and the cost.(3)
flexibility. The services are added to the product for the sake of better satisfying the consumer’s needs.(4)
consuming time. It refers to the period needed in using the product.(5)
selection time. It means the average distance measured to the retailing shop. In the end, L.V. Aspinwall listed a system of classifying the product called “The Characteristics of Goods Theory” by him. The early
commodity school believed that the classification approach can overcome the difficulties faced by most marketing practices and in operation the following steps as classifying various products into the set system and then deploying the correspondent activities in light of their marketing standards of the kind could solve the problem.
In the late 50s to early 60s of the 20th century, considering the deficiencies of classifying the goods of the early commodity school, some scholars put forward that the method that the goods were defined as convenience, option and particulars should be modified and increased the preference on the existing classification. These scholars thought that the differentiation between the convenience and the option should emphasize the role of consumers, for some products are the option for certain consumers but the convenience for other consumers. Only in the angle of the individual consumer can we precisely define the convenience and the option. With the ongoing development of the marketing and the introduction of the new concepts of other subjects, the marketing scholars kept on presenting the disputes and challenges to the existing classification framework. The commodity school redefined the convenience, the option and the peculiarity.
The convenience refers to the product that the consumer little intervenes because of low prices, being easily damaged or the buying activities of no importance to him. Besides, the consumer often accepts the substituent for the functionality. The option means those that the consumer concerns much before buying and is afraid that the goods bought are unsuitable for him. These concerns can be eased by way of information collection and buying decisions afterwards. The peculiarities are those that can be sorted out into the option both in the economic importance and in the distinction of the product features, but their physical features have few relations with the performance nature sought by the consumer. In the 70s of the 20th century, three principles were put forward as independent theoretic bases by the commodity school to make the classification system perfect. First, products should be regarded as a combination of the physical elements and the psychological reaction. Second, products should be defined through the consumer’s behavior and the channel reaction and the correspondent measurements could be made between the delivery and the retailing time. Third, there exist links between the product communication structure and the buying behavior. On the basis of the principles, the commodity school added the 4th category of products to the existent categories: the preference goods. In 1986, in order to apply their classification systems to the transaction, product selling, service, and ideas, the scholars of the commodity school further expounded the convenience, the option, the peculiarity, and the preference with the help of the buying efforts and risk norms related to the price. The detailed definition was presented as follows: (1)
The convenience is the lowest both in the buying efforts and in the risks. That’s to say, the consumer is unwilling to spend too much time and money on these goods and no higher risks are felt in the decision-making.(2)
The preference has more buying efforts and risks than the convenience. In fact, the difference between the convenience and the preference lies in the perceptible risks. The reason that makes the consumer feel high risks usually comes from the marketing activities, especially from the brand and the ads.
(3)
The option is the goods that the consumer is willing to spend more time and money in seeking for and evaluating. This high participation also makes the consumer perceive higher and higher risks.
(4)
The peculiarity is very high in risks and efforts. The difference between the option and the peculiarity lies in the buying efforts, not in risks. The peculiarity is often priced high and needs much time to be bought. However, the buyer is not willing to accept any substituent for the peculiarity.
The scholars of the commodity school emphasized that the classification system of any products has the same target: to guide the decision of the managers. Although the commodity school has made a detailed study of various kinds of products and their classification and played an important role in the marketing advancement and practices, it lacks a further exploration of the marketing environment, the motivation of the consumer behavior and the specific needs of the different goods to the marketing. 2. Functional School This school regards the marketing behavior as its focus. Being different from the commodity school, the functional school focuses on the “how to do” in the marketing while the commodity school on the “what the marketing is”.
Arch
Shaw was considered as the founder of the functional school. He first proposed the classification method in accordance with the marketing functions: (1) risk-taken; (2) goods delivery; (3) financing; (4) sales efforts; (5) making a centralization, arrangement and trans- shipping of the product. In 1950, Edmund Mercalli
improved his own classification framework based on the former categories, which consists of the following six functions: (1)
Communication functions. Seek for the latent consumer or supplier and making a connection with him.
(2)
Merchandising functions. Take all kinds of activities relative to the production and to the satisfaction of the customer’s needs. (3)
Pricing functions. Deal with the price issues as product supplying or acceptability.(4)
Publicity functions. Persuade the latent customer into buying some product and try to retain him. (5)
Logistic functions. Transport and stock the product. (6)
Terminal functions. Respond to the change of the management and responsibility of the product.In 1960, McCarthy advanced the 4Ps theory, i.e. Product, Price, Place and Promotion, which was originated from the classification system of the early functional school as Weld, Leyen, especially Mercalli. The functional school has assimilated the classification approach of the commodity school and mainly studied the marketing activities in the angle of the marketing functions, of which the classification outcomes of Mercalli are well established. They include such functions as communication, exchange, pricing, publicity, logistics and terminal, on the base of which Mercalli initially proposed the typical theory of 4Ps. 3. Regional School The scholars of the regional school concern more the space role between the transaction parties on the base of accepting the research outcomes of the commodity and the functional schools. It was produced in the 1930s.
The commodity school and the functional school came into being in the 1920s. Until the 1930s, the regional school was born and its development was due to William
J. Reilly, who tried to explain the relative attractiveness of the commercial areas in two different cities to the citizens living there in his book entitled “The Law of Retail Gravitation” in 1931 with the mathematical formula. Enlightened by him, P. D. Converse put forward the “New Laws of Retail Gravitation” in 1949 that was used to judge the limitation between the trade center and the trade area. As soon as the trade area was determined in the town, the merchants could decide where they should make their transaction activities and their advertisement. On the basis of the existent study, Hoover advanced a forecasting sales model, which showed more rationality in the analysis of the retail transaction. Soon afterwards, some scholars of the regional school diverted their attention from the retail to the wholesale and made an analysis of the regional variable about the effects of the space distance on the sales organization. The regional structure was much connected with the wholesale system. The regional variable affecting the structure was first the space distance between the supplying place of the basic materials and the firm using them, in which the transportation system emphasized the initial influence. Then the next variable was the space distribution pattern of the intermediary wholesaler. The distribution of the retailer and the final consumers played a revised role in the above effects. To further establish the theory of the regional wholesales structure, they raised eight factors influencing the wholesales market scale: (1) product weights relative to the value; (2) easily corrosive; (3) technique of the product differentiation; (4) elements affecting the factory location; (5) price and its strategy; (6) efficiency and services of transport; (7) marketing means of the individual firm; (8) additional services.Besides, the regional school made an analysis of the geographical variable on the ratio between the wholesales and the retails by using the statistical research data of the United States. The scholars of the regional school thought that the business’ behaviors such as the geographical location, the space expansion in selling and buying, and the relations among the supply and the demand in the marketing channel, should be considered not only from the price and sales, but also from the natural and social conditions. Recently, the regional school is focusing on the study of the mathematical model in the field of trade, for example, the models in assessing the coincidence of the boundaries between the two markets and the location selection of the retailing shops, etc. The status, quantity and positions of the competitors among regions are often different, and the demands either of the final consumer, of intermediaries or of governments are various, too. In this way, the regional school bases its study on regional markets to explore the marketing issues such as regional competition and demands and the related strategies. 4. Institutional School The institutional school was born at the beginning of the 20th century and dominated the same position as the commodity school and the functional school. However, the institutional school laid its more emphasis on the research of the marketing organization. L. D. H. Weld was regarded as the founder of the institutional school and he raised an issue on the marketing channel efficiency in the book “The Marketing of Farm Products” published in 1916. In 1923, Ralph Starr Butter, manager of the Publicity Development in the U. S. Rubber Company published a book called “Marketing and Merchandising” which contributed much to the early development of the structure school. He laid emphasis on the effectiveness of the intermediary to the producer and the consumer. He thought that an important role of the intermediary was to create effectiveness, namely, the basic effectiveness, the form effectiveness, the place effectiveness and the time effectiveness. The market organization could do nothing to the basic and the form effectiveness, but played an important role in the place and the time effectiveness. That’s to say, the intermediary could create them and bring the goods from the production place to the consuming area and sell the product to the consumer when it was needed. In this period, many scholars joined in the Institutional School and aired their own opinions. Ralph Frederick Breyer in the University of Pennsylvania explained the process forming the marketing structure in his book “The Marketing Institutions”. He proposed that it was necessary to construct huge and complicated commercial mechanisms so as to achieve the marketing activities. We had found that
the marketing function had something to do with the overcoming the difficulties of merchandize exchange, which needed us to spend much time and work in combining such elements as land, labor forces, capitals and other sources and in reasonably allocating and coordinating them in the light of quality and quantity in order to set up a work organ, of which all the parts should be considered commercially and linked to the marketing. Some scholars of this school also made a study of the vertical integration. They thought that the firm could play more roles in production and distribution, which both reduced the marketing cost and insured the output of the finished products and the supplying of the raw materials. The
reduction of the marketing cost could be realized through cutting down the process of continuous buying and selling due to the vertical integration in the firm’s operation. The integration is an effective approach to reduce the marketing cost, but causes grave problems in management and coordination. From 1954 to 1973, the institutional school began to analyze the production of the marketing channel, the evolution of the channel structure and the design of the framework with high efficiency by way of the principles of economics. During this period, F. C. Bauldston attempted to explain how to design marketing channels that could make the marketer obtain more profitability. He had explored an approach how an individual firm designed its channel. He believed that the individual firm faced channel-designing problems in some aspects and not in the whole marketing systems. Besides, the Institutional School had done some research in the integration theory that said the central channel coordinating system included three categories, i.e. the firm’s marketing system, the management strategy and contracts. The firm’s marketing system was a successive stage of production and distribution under the single property while the management strategy was able to co-operate the flow of goods and services so as to get the systematic thriftiness. The contracts could influence the channel, too.
In 1965 and 1973, some theories explained and foresaw the channel structure, and pointed out the deficiencies of the institutional school said. Besides, they made a deep study of the connotation about the deferring and speculation.
If the distribution channel was regarded as postponement, it was a tool for an independent organization to transfer the risks of all goods to another independent one. For manufacturers, he would refuse production unless he received no orders and then the correspondent risks were passed to the buyer; as for the intermediary, two kinds of postponement existed: one was called backward postponement, i.e. refusing to buy and the other was forward postponement, i.e. buying when he was sure to be able to sell out; the consumer realized the postponement by buying in the retailer.The speculation theory meant that all the changes of the physical forms of goods or the move of the product in the inventory should be done in the marketing process as early as possible in order to reduce the cost of the marketing system. In light of the deferring and speculation theories, the production of the inventory stage can be explained as follows: as for buyers and sellers, only if the net revenue surpasses the additional cost in the period of retardation, the inventory will be sure to happen. 1.2.2
Management Schools Management schools came out from the 1940s to 1950s, and included the management school, the systematic school, the social exchange school, etc. They were lying in the transition period when the western countries were transformed from the seller market to the buyer market. In the new situation of the buyer market, the decision-makers of firms must think it over how to cater to the buyer’s needs in the marketing. That’s to say, they must learn how to face the market, adapt to the market and expand the market.
1. Management School Since the end of the 1950s, as the buyer market was becoming bigger and bigger, the marketing research has been further extended so as to meet the needs of the marketing practice. Such concepts as “marketing myopia”, “marketing mix”, and “market segmentation”, etc. were fabricated. These concepts laid their emphasis on consumers in the marketing research, which played an important role in the marketing theory and practice. From then on, the marketing management thoughts have begun to be grown up.
Initially, the management school advanced the marketing concept, which explained that seeking for the production efficiency alone was possibly myopic. The marketer should pay more attention to the consumer’s wants and demands before making the production decision. If it wants to win in the changing competitive market, the firm must take the competitive role and efficiency into consideration correctly before the use of the marketing activities and understand all sorts of knowledge about consumers. Managerially, the primary task of the marketing would rather make the commercial behavior suitable for the consumer’s benefits than master the know-how to let the consumer behave as the commercial benefits. Besides, the management school has proposed many theories and views that are still being used substantially in the nowadays marketing textbooks. Considering the different aims of the consumer buying behavior, the management school insisted for the first time in 1956 that marketers should segment the market and strive to establish various marketing combinations so as to satisfy the different demands of the consumer. In light of the market segmentation theory, to better satisfy the consumer’s demands, the market should be divided into some small homogeneous niches among which the differentiation exists. The main contribution of this school lies in: telling the market segmentation from the product differentiation; the application of the market segmentation in the industrial market; the quantitative analysis of the market segmentation. Besides, the scholars of this school had put forward the principles of how the marketing manager should deal with various elements as products, price, place and promotion in the marketing combination. In the product decision, the most important achievement is the introduction of the product life cycle. Its application is embodied in the following: in one hand, its systematic framework like production, development, maturation and decline can be used to explain the market impetus; on the other hand, it can be applied as a forecasting model to interpret when changes happen and when the take-over from one stage to another comes.
In pricing, the school strives to change the economic theory into the normalized rules so that the marketing management can easily make practices. The management school advocates that marketers can adopt the multi-stage analyzing method as pricing tools. This method divides the main factors to be considered in the pricing decision into six successive steps: (1) choose the target market; (2) select the brand image; (3) determine the marketing combination; (4) formulate the pricing policies; (5) establish the pricing strategy; (6) decide the price. The calculation in each step should simplify the work of the next step and reduce the possibility of the error in the pricing decision according to the above-said steps. In other words, this method translates the pricing decision into several parts of the management and logically, each part comes before the next part of which the decision can make the following less complicated.In the field of promotion, the scholars of the management school advanced some suggestions on the personnel promotion and the advertisement decision. They insisted that the ads should aim at making the consumer buy the product through a series of marketing activities and that the seller should abandon the deceitful tactics and change the view that explores the market in the compelling personal promoting approach. Recently, they have laid more emphasis on the management of the personal promotion and of the selling field. The issues studied by them include the communication between promoters and consumers, the selling effects, the supervision to the selling forces, and the motive of the promoter, etc.
2. Systematic School In the 1960s, the systematic school came into being. As the other schools of the marketing, the systematic school appeared with the market environment changing. In the meanwhile, its birth was due to the development of the other disciplines in studying technology, which advanced the scholars to explore the marketing and its activities in the angle of the systematic theory. Particularly, the extensive use of computers makes the word “systematic” more popular in the management literature.
The systematic school holds that a firm should be considered as an integrated system of different functions. In the system,
the strength produced in the information, raw materials, human resources, capital, equipments and the flow of funds decides the basic trend of the growth, fluctuations and decline of the firm. The school also points out that production, marketing and consumption should be combined together and analyzed by way of the systematic framework. The marketing issue belongs to the systematic scope that is featured of communication and adaptation in the social organization. The decision maker can spot a series of problems when inspecting the market in the systematic theory and the correspondent feasible solutions are available, which are the reference when he encounters handicaps in solving the relative problems. The systematic school has explored the systematic theory on the marketing and raised three types of systems: the atomic system, the mechanic system and the biological system. In the atomic system, no single element can influence the whole system and all the elements inter-move and inter-act. Some aspects of the marketing function as the mechanic system acts, such as inventories and distributions. Biology concerns the study of the organic body related to the natural environment and the organized behavior system is the reflection of the biology in the marketing. The systematic school has made a classification and organization of the marketing thoughts in the micro-analysis method. This method emphasizes some tiny structure as ads and distribution of the sub-system while the macro-analysis method focuses on the systematic behavior of the overall system. Different from the micro-analysis method, the macro-analysis method pays more attention to the behavior patterns under the different conditions though it doesn’t ignore completely the particular marketing phenomenon. 1.2.3
Behavior Schools Behavior schools composed of the organizational power school, the consumerism school and the buyer behavior school. They paid more attention to the effects of the organizational activities, the individual behavior and the social actions on the marketing and tended to study the issues in a way of multi-disciplines combining the psychology, sociology, and organizational behavior science. The views put forward by them have contributed much in raising the consumer’s satisfaction, safeguarding the consumer’s rights and valuing the marketing in the social economical development. 1. Organizational Power School The organizational power school is relatively new in the marketing and starts in the 1950s and has grown up in the 1970s and 1980s. In some degree, the organizational power school is the successor of the structural school. The main difference between these two schools is that of the different angle to study the issue. The structural school analyzes the effectiveness of the distribution channel in the angle of economy so as to increase the welfare for the consumer while the organizational power school diverts its concerns from the consumer’s welfare to the target and demands of the distribution member as manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers. In the article “Management of the Manufacturer-Distributor System”, the organizational power school pointed out that manufacturers and distributors form a competitive system that needs management like a single system. The book “Distribution Channels: Behavior Perspective” published in 1969 makes it come to the front stage in the marketing. Its primary topics being discussed include the following:
(1)
What is the source of the rights? These rights include coercion and non-coercion. (2)
How should the members of the distribution channel use the obtained rights? Correspondently, how should the marketing manager use his rights? (3)
Measurement methods of the rights. Some scholars are engaged in developing correct and reliable methods to measure the rights and consider that the rights have direct relations with the roles. (4)
What are relations between rights and conflicts? (5)
How should the conflicts be measured? They have analyzed the efficacy of the method measuring the conflicts. (6)
What is the cooperation in the inner organization system? They think that the cooperation refers to a joint action of two or more conductors in the hope that they exchange the resources with equilibrium to realize the targets inside and among the organization.
(7)
How does the right influence the bargaining process? 2. Consumerism School The consumerism school focused its importance on studying the consumer welfare and satisfaction in experience and concepts. For example, it mainly probed the problems as imbalance between buyers and sellers, malpractices of private enterprises in the marketing. Another issue it concerned is the morality in the marketing.
The consumerism school has made a study of the following topics: the product security and the consumer information; the discriminatory issue of the consumer; the satisfaction and dissatisfaction of the consumer. Some scholars attempted to form the concept of the consumerism school, of which the consumer protectionism was included. Therefore, Peter Druke thought that the consumer regarded the manufacturer as the entity that was interested in the consumer and didn’t really understand him. It is impossible to differentiate the consumers if the manufacturer has not made a deep research of them. In this school, the most persuasive idea is proposed by Philip Kotler. He considered that the marketing concept on the customer-oriented idea could better cater to the commercial activities to realize the profit of the customer and that the marketing responsibility was to innovate new products that could both satisfy the recent demand of the consumer and upheld the long-term interests of him. So Kotler presented a case on the basis of the recent satisfaction and the long-term interests to differentiate the existent products (see Table 1.1).Table 1.1
Product Classifications by Kotler
Short-term satisfactionLong-term interestsHighLow
HighIdeal productsProfitable products
LowPleasant productsFlaw products
Besides, the scholars of this school had expounded the nature and role of the marketing ethics, especially the ethical issues in advertisement, personal promotion, pricing, marketing research and international marketing. Overall, the school has turned to the tenet how the marketing encourages the ethical behavior by way of ethical training, orientation, management principles and encouragement in the marketing organization instead of pure criticism to the abnormal marketing activities. 3. Buyer Behavior School The buyer behavior school is mainly engaged in the research of target customers, customer sizes, customer’s buying incentives, and so on. In their study, the scholars inquires into the buyer’s buying behavior with the aid of methodology of the behavior science, of experimental methods of the applied science, those related to physiology and psychology, and of mathematics, operational research and managerial technology as stochastic process, control on line and optimization, etc. The buyer behavior school has opened up research methodology of modern marketing and made it more matured, more serious and more scientific. The buyer behavior school emphasizes the customer in the market and has made a study of such issues as who the customer is, how many exist and why the customer buys, etc. This school has the following characteristics:(1)
The consumer behavior is considered as part of the human behavior, and not as the unnatural and abnormal behavior phenomenon. This school tends to understanding and explaining the consumer behavior based on the human behavior and then many theories about the consumer behavior are born. Every theory is built on certain views of psychology, sociology and anthropology, and has raised various explanations to the consumer behavior patterns. (2)
The buyer behavior school has been focusing the package product and the durable consumption goods and is becoming more and more interested in the study of the buying behavior of the industrial and service industries. (3)
This school defines its research field as the choice of brands and not as the others, and thinks that its study aims at the buying behavior and not at the consuming or distributing behavior.
1.3
Connotation and Nature of Marketing1.3.1
Connotation of Marketing Marketing is a science to study the marketing activities and their rules of the firm. It absorbs both the principles and techniques of western economy, economical management and econometrics and the theories and methods of sociology, philosophy, politics, behavior psychology and mathematics, etc. In some aspects, it is an integrated and comprehensive applied economy. 1.3.2
Nature of Marketing Marketing, as a discipline, has its own development tracks and regularity. Its primary features are defined as following:1. Applicability Marketing studies not only the basic theory of the market, but also the marketing activities and their rules of the firm. Its purpose is to guide the market operation effectively. Therefore, as a product of the development of the commodity economy to cater to the demands of modern enterprises, the marketing has been highly emphasized and widely used for the decision and practices of the firm’s operation. 2. Comprehensiveness Modern marketing was initially set up on the theory of economy and further developed into a brand-new science with the absorption and use of the theories and approaches of modern management, behavior science, mathematics, psychology, sociology, biology, package, trademark, and advertisement, etc. As Philip
Kotler pointed out that marketing was an applied science based on economy, behavior science, and modern management theory. He also said that economy was the father of marketing; its mother was behavior science; mathematics was the grandfather of it; philosophy, grandmother of it.
3. Practicality The theory and the contents of the marketing are originated in the marketing experience of the firm and the correspondent study is for the purpose of instructing the marketing practices. With the marketing practices deepened, modern marketing as a science will see a continuous advancement, too. 4. Artistry The theoretic systems and approaches of modern marketing are easy to be understood and practicable. However, this doesn’t mean that learning some theories and approaches can easily solve the marketing problems, for the linkage between theory and practice is the key to the solution. So we should learn the marketing theory as an art and flexibly use it in the marketing practice. 1.4
Research Approaches of Marketing Marketing aims at probing the external environments of firms, the consumer behavior and the influence of them on the marketing activities, and the regularity of the whole marketing process in firms. Moreover, the research approaches keep on changing with the reform of the research object and the richness of the research content in the development of the marketing.
1.4.1
Commodity Research Approach The commodity research approach is also called the product research approach. Its objects are usually some kinds of products and it mainly analyzes the marketing issues. The scholars are always interested in the study of the marketing of certain products, especially that of the non-farming product and the industrial finished outcome. For example, W. E. Krueusi wrote a book “The Marketing of Products” by using the product research approach (in 1905) , in which he had demonstrated the marketing theory with the aid of many cases. Considering that people paid less attention to the marketing of non-farming products, he designed an analysis pattern applied for the marketing of oil, minerals, steel rolling, voyage car and telephone services and so on, and made a deep study of their supply and demand conditions, product features, places, agencies, pricing, distribution costs and trade management, etc.
1.4.2
Functional Research Approach In 1940, R. Alexander, Sarfare, Ilder and W. Alderson
expounded in the book “Marketing” that marketing was a management function. Being Different from the product research approach, they more concern marketing plans, investigation and budget controls and generalize some management functions included in the traditional marketing as merchandized functions, namely, all sorts of activities that regulate commodity production or selling so as to satisfy the consumer demands. They thought that three categories of the marketing function exist: exchange function like buying and selling; supply function like transport and stock; service function like financing, risk taking, and market information, etc.
1.4.3
Institutional Research Approach The institutional research approach highlights the marketing activities of the various organizations and of all levels like producers, agents, wholesalers, and retailers, etc. in the marketing channel. Its drawbacks mainly lie in the fact that it neglects the consumer demands and still centers around the goods. 1.4.4
Managerial Research Approach The managerial research approach takes the firm as its main body and synthesizes the elementary demands of the commodity research approach, the institutional research approach and the functional research approach in the angle of marketing management decisions, analyzes the market environment in the light of the target market, and formulates the concerned marketing strategy in accordance with the firm’s resources and aims in order to satisfy the needs of the target market and to reach the firm’s aim. 1.4.5
Systematic Research Approach The systematic research approach was first proposed in the book entitled “Basic Marketing: Systematic Approach” (1971) written by George S. Downing. Marketing is a total framework of such activities as pricing, promotion, distribution, which can provide the current and latent customers with products and services through all kinds of channels. In the process of marketing, the firm keeps on observing the market, spotting and evaluating various change agents, then, makes a feedback to the managerial level for the sake of elaborating the new strategy and plans of the firm, does away with the handicaps that hinder the realization of the aim by means of the revised action and assesses the response of the customer and of the competitor to the revision, and further formulates the revised strategic plans. So marketing is one function no more, but a process going through the firm’s operation and management. 1.5
Summary 现代的市场营销学不是简单的产品推销和广告，而是为了实现组织和个人的目标所进行的关于构思、货物和劳务的观念、定价、促销分销的策划与实施等一系列与市场有关的活动。现代营销学研究内容主要包括6个方面：市场、顾客、产品、价格、商品流通过程以及促销。在市场营销学的发展过程中产生了很多学派，但归纳起来看，有古典学派、管理学派和行为学派等，各个学派从不同角度展开了对市场营销相关方面的研究，对市场营销理论的发展与市场营销实践发挥了不可磨灭的作用。市场营销研究方法从商品研究法、功能研究法、机构研究法、管理研究法到系统研究法，由浅入深、由对营销某一方面进行研究到整个营销系统研究，充分显示了市场营销这一科学领域发展的复杂性与广泛性，学者们对市场营销方法的研究为进一步研究市场营销活动提供了基本的研究框架。Key Terms Marketing
Buyer Behavior School
Consumerism School
Organizational Power School
Systematic School
Management School
Institutional School
Regional School
Functional School
Commodity School【案例】 日本企业的成功许多获得成功的日本企业，都花费许多时间、精力和资金去分析市场机遇，并对目标市场作深入的了解，研究消费者心理，摸清组织市场营销的活动规律。例如，索尼公司在进入美国市场之前，就先派出设计人员、工程师以及其他人员组成专家组去美国考察，研究如何设计产品以适应美国消费者的爱好。然后招聘美国工业专家、顾问和经理等人员，帮助索尼分析如何进入市场。在仔细地研究分析市场机遇，确定目标市场后，日本企业会着手制定以产品、价格、分销、促销、公共关系和政治权力运用等内容的市场营销战略规划。一、产品策略日本企业最初进入国际市场时，遇到了许多困难，首当其冲的是来自美国和欧洲国家的强大竞争者的对抗，因为那时世界市场主要由美国和欧洲国家霸占。其次，就当时的日本产品而论，无论是技术上，还是全球性销售网络上，都比不上美国和欧洲的产品。此外，日本还要努力消除人们在二战前所形成的日本产品质量低劣的印象。但是，日本企业寄希望于利用其劳动力便宜的优势，在产品的价格上可以与欧美抗衡。为此，在20世纪50年代后期和60年代期间，为了打入世界市场，日本各企业特别强调产品设计的低成本、高质量和创新性。从目前日本进入国际市场的情况看，也可以证明他们仍然着重突出这三点。日本企业以产品开发战略和市场开发战略为重点，进行目标市场渗透，一旦在某国市场取得了立足点，就努力扩大其产品的生产线，以便增加产量，扩大销售额，逐步增加对整个市场的控制范围。以丰田公司向美国市场渗透为例，即表现为产品推出的连续性和不断扩大生产线。日本的许多企业，一向以增加产品的花色品种的方式进行市场开发。他们根据消费者的不同口味、爱好和收入水平，不断地变换产品型号、花色和品种。例如，坝农公司以AE-135单镜反光照相机为基础机型，生产出种类繁多、特点功能不同的相机，使其销售额猛增。坝农公司这种向市场纵深不断猛烈推进的策略，是日本许多企业的共同特点。每当一种新产品投入市场，就会有另一种新产品进入研发。此外，日本各企业的产品更新换代非常快，其速度几乎是德国(德国是产品更新换代比较快的国家之一)的两倍。如20世纪70年代期间，丰田汽车公司可以同时向美国汽车市场提供82种产品，而其他国家则只能提供48种或31种型号的汽车。不断地改进产品质量，是日本企业获得成功的又一大特征。日本企业对不断改进产品的质量倾注了大量的心血，他们经常与消费者保持联系，甚至不惜花费大量的钱财和许多宝贵的时间，通过各种渠道，不断地了解和虚心听取顾客关于改进产品质量的意见。把质量当作企业的生命，已成为日本企业全体员工的群体意识。一项研究表明，日本产品质量已胜过美国产品。20世纪70年代中期，美国执世界计算机工业之牛耳时，日本尚属无名之辈。但近几年，日本却成为美国在计算机工业发展上的主要威胁者。二、价格策略日本企业在进入国际市场时，一直采用一种所谓的“市场份额”价格策略。这种策略就是采用较低的进入市场价格，以便取得一部分市场并进一步达到长期控制该市场。为此，日本总是将价格定得比竞争者低。他们乐于在最初几年里受点损失，把这种损失视为对长远市场发展的一种投资。这样做使日本在过去几年中被指责为进行“产品倾销”，此情形在美国的小汽车等产品市场上表现得尤为明显。日本的小汽车以省油、低价等优点大量涌进美国市场，1990年已占美国小汽车市场约30%，使美国的汽车工业招架不住。最后，美日双方都以官方身份进入“对抗阶段”，对簿公堂，美国做出了对小汽车限量进口的决定。三、分销策略日本企业想打进美国市场，但当初日本的产品质量形象低劣，声誉不佳。而且，许多企业没有产品销售渠道。何况，即使了解美国的销售渠道，也不能公开地加以利用。为此，日本企业采取了以下几种措施。(1)
集中全力选好进入市场的突破口。他们不是采取全线出击，一下子占领全部市场，而是选中该市场的某一地区、某个批发商或某种类型的消费者，先打进去，站稳脚跟后再逐步扩大。如丰田汽车公司首先选择了加州，通过该地区了解美国市场的特点、消费者爱好以及与美国批发商和经销商打交道的经验。在突破口取得成功，尔后全面进入美国市场。日本电视机进入中国市场的步骤则是先找经销商销售12寸、16寸黑白电视机，尔后销售彩色电视机，最后在中国合资建厂。(2)
精心挑选有效的销售渠道和能干的批发商。(3)
对某种特殊产品，直接与用户联系，建立独立的销售机构。(4)
利用竞争者的销售网络进行销售，即在打入某国市场后，利用该国中间商或生产者的牌号或商标销售日本产品。当其产品打入市场并占有一定地位时，就逐步建立自己的产品品牌形象，形成自己的销售渠道，最后取而代之。四、销售策略日本企业在进入某个市场时，十分注意与批发商的友好合作，向他们提供各种帮助，付给较优厚的酬金，激发中间商经营日本产品的积极性。日本企业坚持“经销商利益第一，本企业利益第二”的原则，始终与中间商保持友好商务关系。日本企业还大量投入金钱和精力，开展广告宣传，推进和提高产品的市场声誉，扩大销售额。五、公共关系策略日本企业的公共关系开展得颇具风格，有力地扩大了企业的知名度。例如，日本汽车公司在进入美国市场后，所有的公司都积极地致力于美国的社会服务，抽出人力、物力和资金，从事那些看起来和本职工作毫不相干的社会服务工作，并与当地社区建立了亲密关系。日本汽车公司在田纳西州自建立工厂的那一天起，便成立了义务活动小组和研究西方问题的捐款委员会，经常向当地的慈善机构捐赠钱物，还组织当地的居民到工厂参观和组织当地中学生每学期到工厂体验一天的工厂生活等。这许许多多的活动和亲善态度颇得当地社区居民的好感。这也是日本企业打入美国市场的竞争策略的重要因素。美惊呼日汽车商竞争有方，而美国的汽车公司却对此无能为力！六、政治权力策略历史记录表明，日本的企业在打进美国市场初期，很少与美国的公司进行正面冲突，而是寻找薄弱环节，甚至从美国公司尚未到达的市场先行突破，求得一席之地。然后，他们就像“滚雪球”一样，进行战略推进，建立他们的产品基地和巩固市场阵地，以便在将来某时与美国竞争者进行正面对抗或直接竞争。随着正面进攻“猛烈战斗”的日益加剧，必然遭到美国公司的强烈反击，于是就产生了“贸易摩擦”。日本企业或是周旋于当地社团、政府，或是吸引大量本来属于美国企业的零售网及小企业，或是改善工厂中美国员工的待遇等。采用各种方式和途径，以减弱美国竞争者的反击力量，减少乃至消除摩擦。有时也通过种种骚扰，使对手士气低落，以便最后迫使对手做出让步。当“贸易摩擦”激烈到企业无法运用自己的力量来消除时，最后只有通过政府的外交手段来解决。近两年来，日美进行的“东京回合”谈判就是一个有力的佐证。(资料来源：宋小敏等. 市场营销案例实例与评析. 武汉：武汉工业大学出版社，1992.)
【案例分析】许多日本企业之所以能获得成功，主要得益于他们花费大量时间、精力和资金去分析市场机遇，并对目标市场进行深入了解，研究消费者心理，掌握了组织市场营销活动的规律。在仔细研究分析市场机遇并确定目标市场后，日本的企业会根据目标市场特点制定能适应目标市场需求的以产品、价格、分销、促销、公共关系和政治权力运用等为内容的市场营销战略规划。【思考题】1. 日本企业产品策略的主要特点是什么？
2. 日本企业公共关系策略的特点是什么？3. 结合该案例及本章所学内容，谈谈中国企业进入世界市场应注意的问题及其对策。
Chapter 2 Marketing PhilosophyFocus on:1. Evolution and background of the marketing philosophy.2. Difference between the marketing concept and the promotion concept. 3. Discuss the statement: the establishment of the marketing concept is a radical reform of the marketing idea.4. Discuss the roles of the marketing concept to the firms in China. Marketing concept refers to the guidelines and standards of conduct based on marketing activities of enterprises organized and planned by the business operators. Marketing concept is the attitudes and perceptions of the business operators to the activities of market, but also the business concept and the method of thinking.The formation of the marketing concept is not people’s subjective imagination, but is gradually formed and developed with the development of social production and the changes of supply and demand conditions in the market. The certain marketing philosophy is a production of certain socio-economic development, which comes from business practice and develops from the practice. Looking at the history of the world commodity economy development, the evolution of the marketing concept has experienced generally six stages, which include production concept, product concept, selling concept, marketing concept, social marketing concept and mega-marketing concept.2.1
Production Concept2.1.1
Background of Production ConceptThe production concept stemmed from the late 19th century to 1920s. In this stage, the capitalist production was still at a relatively low level because of the shortage of materials after experiencing the World War II, and their products could not fully meet the market demand. In the seller’s market conditions, the market demand can only passively submit to the production. What the consumers care about is whether they can buy goods, the price is cheap or not and the main features of products without paying attention to some small differences of products. Therefore enterprises will be able to profit from a large number of production and sales by delivering a single line of products in the market.2.1.2
Meaning of Production Concept Production concept is a marketing concept which centers on the production, and focuses on improving efficiency, increasing productivity, lowering costs (see Figure 2.1). Under the environment of undeveloped commodity economy and the product in short supply, the operators tend to guide corporate marketing activities with production ideas. The main task of enterprise management is to improve the production technology, labor organizations, labor productivity, reduce costs and increase sales.Production concept is supported by the marketers who think that the market needs our products, consumers like those with low price they can buy at any moment. Therefore, the production concept is a kind of “basing sales on production” concept, which attaches importance to the production and quantity, but contempt the marketing and characteristics.Production concept is one of the oldest ideas to guide the seller to act. The production concept is generally regarded as that the enterprise is able to sell out what it has produced.Figure 2.1
Production Concept Diagram2.1.3
Characteristics of Production Concept (1)
Enterprises mainly focus on the production of products, and pursue the high efficiency, high-volume, low-cost; single variety of products, long life-cycle.(2)
The enterprises mainly care the existence and the number of products in the market, rather than consumer’s demands to the market.(3)
The production sector is considered as the main sector in the management.
2.2
Product Concept2.2.1
Background of Product ConceptThe product concept comes from the 1920s to 1930s, which also was produced under the situation of “seller’s market” like the production concept. However, with the further development capitalism productivity, the market situation of short supply had been eased. Companies not only concerned about production, but also began to focus much more on improving the product, that is, to change their importance from “quantity” to “quality”.2.2.2
Connotation of Product ConceptThe product concept is based on enhancing products and improving the quality and functionality of existing products as the marketing concept. The basic assumption is that customers like the best quality and most powerful products.The marketers holding the product concept think that consumers like the products with fine quality, complete functions and distinctive features. Therefore, companies should strive to improve the product’s quality, increase the product’s functionality, and constantly make the product better. At the same time, they insist on that they do not worry about sales as long as the product is good, only those with poor quality need to be marketed.2.2.3
Characteristics of Product Concept The product concept is also a kind of “basing sales on production” concept, which attaches importance to production and quality, but ignore product sales and customer’s demands. Its main features are as follows: (1)
Enterprises focus on improving and producing the products, pursuing high quality and multifunctional products; (2)
Enterprises neglect marketing, simply attract customers by the emphasis on the product itself, and completely reject other promotion methods;(3)
Enterprises still make the productive sector as the main sector, but they promote quality control in the production process.
2.3
Selling Concept2.3.1
Background of Selling ConceptSelling concept arose during the late 20s to the early 50s in the 20th century, and was generated in the process which the capitalist economy changed from a “seller’s market” to “buyer’s market”. At that time, the production of products increased rapidly, and the supply and demand situation had changed. Also, a buyer’s market was not finally formed, but the competition among vendors became increasingly fierce. Marketing problems were exposed. And even more serious economic crisis in 1929 broke out and business failures occurred frequently. The selling of products became an issue of business survival and development. Such an objective situation made enterprises realize that it was not enough only to produce the products with fine quality and low price, and that the enterprises must pay attention to and strengthen the product selling efforts so as to obtain more profits in the competition.2.3.2
Contents of Selling ConceptThe selling concept is also known as marketing concept, which is centered on the production and sales of products in order to stimulate sales and promote the purchase. In the situation of products oversupplied, enterprises will consciously or unconsciously use the selling concept to guide the marketing activities of enterprises.At this point, the primary task facing the company is no longer how to expand the production scale or improving producfivity, but how to market their products. So, enterprises begin to improve marketing systems and sales techniques to draw customers’ attention. And enterprises set up special selling agencies, increase sales staff, pay great efforts on advertising, and gradually form a merchandising-centered marketing concept.The basic assumptions of selling concept suggest that consumers are generally not based on subjective desires when purchasing products, and can be induced only by selling so that their buying behaviors were produced. Whether the sale of products succeeds or not lies in the selling ability of enterprises. This concept can be summarized as “try to sell what has been produced, and then customers will buy them.”2.3.3
Features of Selling ConceptThe selling concept is still a “sales depends on production” marketing concept, its main features are as follows:(1)
Products are unchanged. Enterprises still decide the production direction and production as required according to their own conditions.(2)
Strengthen marketing. Focus on the sales of products, research and application of marketing and promotion methods and techniques.(3)
Begin to pay attention to the customers. Mainly look for potential customers, and study the ways and means to attract customers.(4)
Begin to set up the sales departments. But they are still in a subordinate position.2.4
Marketing Concept2.4.1
Background of Marketing ConceptMarketing concept came into being in the 50s of 20th century. After the World War II, because of capitalism’s rapid economic recovery and development, as well as science and technology’s wide range of applications in production, companies’ production efficiency was continuously improved, and market supply was greatly increased and market competition became more intense; on the other hand, due to economic prosperity, consumers had more income which could be used to select consumption, and this made consumers more demanding.Faced with these circumstances, many entrepreneurs realized that the traditional marketing concepts could not adapt to the new economic environment. Only sale promotion could not fundamentally solve the contradictions of oversupply. And it was essential to put needs of the consumers first, take the initiative to understand and recognize the reality demands of consumers and potential demands, thereby to determine their own production.2.4.2
Contents of Marketing ConceptMarketing
concept is based on consumer-centric idea. The idea suggests that all plans and strategies of enterprises should center on customers, and correctly identify the needs and desires of target market. It is more effective than identifying what competitors supply to satisfy the target market. Marketing concept requires that enterprise implement the “customer first” principle in marketing management, be good at discovering and understanding the needs of target customers, and do everything possible to satisfy it, make customers satisfied so as to achieve business goals. The emergence of the marketing concept is a real revolution in the history of business idea. It has the following differences when compared with the traditional marketing concepts: Firstly, the traditional orientation is based on the production and sales, while marketing concept is customer-centric; secondly, the traditional concept strengthens the functions of sales and achieves profits by selling products, while the marketing concept achieves profits through meeting customers’ needs; thirdly, the traditional marketing concepts are short-term marketing tools which can only gain profits from a large number of sales and have characteristics with the short-term, while the marketing concept is to satisfy customers’ needs comprehensively, to earn long-term and stable profits. 2.4.3
Four Pillars of Marketing ConceptMarketing concept has four pillars: target market, customers’ needs, integrated marketing and win-win profit model.1. Identifying the Target Market Marketing concept puts forward the idea that the enterprise must define its own target market. The so-called target market refers to the selected customer groups which the marketing firms will provide services to. The definition of the target market is to clear where the target market of a business is. It is the only way to better study the characters of the target market demands, and then better meet the needs of customers.2. Driven by Customers’ DemandsMarketing concept also means that business activities should be customers’ demands-oriented. The correct understanding of customers’ needs and satisfaction is the focal point for all the work. In the modern market environment, the reasonableness of enterprises’ existence is their ability to meet the needs of the customers. A concept that the enterprise should “produce and operate what the customer wants” is to be established. Enterprises should not only see customers’ demands as the starting point of corporate marketing, but also meet the needs of customers throughout the entire process of corporate marketing. This idea should permeate all sectors of corporate marketing as the criteria for the work of various departments. The enterprises should understand and meet not only the customer’s actual demands, but also the potential needs, adjust the company’s marketing strategies according to market demand trends in order to adapt to market changes, and to determine the survival and development of enterprises.3. Integrated Marketing Approach All sectors in the enterprises will be integrated into customer interests, and this is called integrated marketing. The integrated marketing has two meanings: firstly, the integration of various marketing functions; secondly, the integration of the various departments.The marketing concept requires enterprises base corporate marketing objectives on marketing, take advantage of products, prices, channels, promotion, public relations and other factors, and meet the customer’s overall demands from all aspects.4. A Win-Win Profit Model The marketing concept stresses that the marketing activities must achieve a win-win business of customers and marketing. Only in this way can marketing make the transactions between business and customers continue, otherwise, it can only be a short-term transaction.The marketing concept requires enterprises to focus not only on current interest, but also on long-term ones of the enterprises. In marketing the enterprises should both meet customers’ needs and make customers satisfied to establish a good corporate image and win re-buyers through customer satisfaction. Therefore, the enterprises must pay attention to the production, sales, and the marketing services in marketing. The service runs through the entire process of production and operation. The end of a cycle is the beginning of another new cycle, thus promoting the improvement of the enterprise management.2.5
Social Marketing Concept2.5.1
Background of Social Marketing ConceptSocial marketing concept came into being in the 70s in the 20th century when the new situation of energy shortages, inflation, rising unemployment, serious environmental pollution, consumer protection movement prevalently emerged in the western capitalist. The marketing concept evaded the reality that there is implied conflict among the consumer needs, consumer interests and long-term social welfare. The development of marketing, on the one hand brought enormous benefits to the community and the consumers, on the other hand caused environmental pollution, destruction of social ecological balance. There had been fake and shoddy products and deceptive advertising, which made the majority of consumers not satisfied, and set off a movement to protect consumer rights and protection of ecological balance movement, forcing the corporate marketing activities to take into account long-term interests of consumers and the community.
2.5.2
Contents of Social Marketing ConceptThe basic view of the social marketing concept is as follows: enterprises should ensure customer satisfaction and the consumers’ and the public’s long-term benefits, looking them as their fundamental purpose and the responsibility for the social marketing decision-making. At the same time, the enterprises should also take into account the needs of consumers, consumer desire, consumer’s interests and social welfare (see Figure 2.2). On this premise, the enterprises can obtain profits.Figure 2.2
Three Factors of the Social Marketing ConceptThe social marketing concept required marketers to consider interests of three parties, namely, corporate profits, satisfaction of customers’ needs and social benefits in the development of making marketing policy.As it is shown in the picture, the triangle diagram is a focus in business under the guidance of the social marketing concept. Therefore, the enterprises must do a good job in market research, not only to investigate and understand the reality of consumer practical and potential demand, but also to understand the satisfaction of consumers’ demands, so it can avoid the waste of social resources due to the repeat of introduction and production. The enterprises should both look into consumers’ demands and understand the effects of corporate marketing. Moreover, the enterprises ought to pay attention to the analysis of the competitor’s strengths and weaknesses, take their advantages to do a good job of marketing. At the same time they must concern the social benefits of corporate marketing analysis, consider the overall interest, develop services which are beneficial to social development and people’s physical and mental health, give up those services which are high energy consumption, high pollution, and harmful to people’s physical and mental health in order to contribute to the economic and social development and benefit the future generations.2.5.3
Features of Social Marketing Concept1. Concerns of InterestsThe social marketing concept requires business managers to consider consumers’ needs and interests, business interests and social interests, immediate interests and the overall interests when making economic decisions and make the best marketing plan.2. Tasks of the BusinessThe social marketing concept suggests that the task of business is to determine the needs, desires and interests of various target markets, to provide the target market products or services to meet their needs and demands, and to enhance consumer and social welfare in a more effective way than their competitors can.3. Being the Changes and Additions of the Marketing ConceptThe center of the marketing concept is to meet consumers’ needs and demands, and thus to achieve corporate profit targets. But often this phenomenon occurs: there is a conflict of interest between the individual needs and social public interests in the process of meeting the individual’s needs. The enterprise’s marketing efforts may be unconsciously cause social losses.4. Stresses of the Social Marketing ConceptAlthough the marketing concept also stresses the interests of consumers, it believes the interests of consumers must be based on the premise of achieving corporate profit targets. When the two are in conflict with each other, protecting the profits of an enterprise should be in priority. Meanwhile, the social marketing concept sees achieving customer satisfaction as well as consumer’s and the public’s long-term benefits as their fundamental purpose and responsibilities.5. Decision-MakingUnder the guidance of the marketing concept, decision-making process is usually to decide profit targets first, and then possible ways to achieve profit targets will be explored; the social marketing concept requires the decision-making should first consider the interests of consumers and society, seek for effective ways to meet consumers’ demands and to promote the interests of consumers, and then consider the profit targets.The proposal of the social marketing concept is another big step forward of the marketing concept. China’s state-owned enterprise marketing activities regard the interests of society as the fundamental purpose of business, reflecting the interests of enterprises and social interests with great consistency. Chinese enterprises should consciously use the social marketing concept as a guide, considering the organic combination of points of the market demands, business strengths and interests of society as bases for the business decisions; they should improve the marketing effectiveness of enterprises comprehensively, and implement the social responsibilities of enterprises in the process of seeking the marketing profits.2.6
Mega-Marketing Concept2.6.1
Rise of Mega-Marketing ConceptThe mega-marketing concept was an entirely new marketing concept which was proposed by Professor Philip Kotler in United States in the 1980s. In his view, the commodity economy has been developed to the current stage when the protectionism in the world trade, trade barriers and trade frictions increasingly happen from time to time. If companies want to successfully enter into a particular market, and to engage in marketing activities, relying solely on traditional 4Ps of marketing is hard to work, but they must be accompanied by political, economic, psychological and public relations and other means to win the cooperation of a number of participants in order to enter the market.Philip Kotler first extended E. J. McCarthy’s 4Ps theory (Product, Price, Place, Promotion) to 6Ps portfolio, which added 2Ps: Political Power and Public Relations. Later, he developed it into a 10Ps portfolio theory, in which he added a new combination of 4Ps on the basis of 6Ps portfolio, namely Probing, Partitioning, Prioritizing, and Positioning. Soon, Kotler added the 11th P on the basis of the above 10Ps combination, which was named People. It means understanding and providing services to people. The 11th P runs through the whole process of marketing activities, and it is the implementation guarantee of the success of the previous 10Ps. This P makes internal marketing theory incorporated into the mixture of the marketing theories and advocates that managers should understand and grasp the trends and patterns of staff needs to overcome the practical difficulties of workers and appropriately meet the material and spiritual needs of the workers in order to motivate employees’ enthusiasm for work. The mega-marketing concept is of great significance for its transformation from tactical marketing to strategic marketing, which is known as the “Second Revolution” of the marketing.2.6.2
Connotation of Mega-Marketing ConceptThe mega-marketing concept was a new development of the marketing concept since the 1980s. It is a new strategic marketing theory which can guide the business to conduct marketing in a closed market. The core content is to emphasis that it is necessary to effectively adapt to the external environment, but also it should be able to play in some respects a subjective dynamic role and to make the external environment favorable to the business direction.The so-called mega-marketing means the process of activities that enterprises strategically use economic, psychological, and political and public relationship means in order to successfully enter a particular market, where they are engaged in business operations so as to win the support and cooperation of all parties concerned.The mega-marketing idea suggests the marketing problems that enterprises are facing are no longer just how to meet the needs of the existing target markets since the trade protectionism and government intervention are strengthened. In the marketing, the first thing enterprises do is to obtain the support from the authorities, the legislative branch, executive decision makers with the use of political power and public relations, inspire and guide the specific market needs and establish a good corporate reputation and brand image among the consumers in the market in order to open the market and enter the market. Then the traditional 4Ps (Product, Price, Place, Promotion) portfolios are adopted to meet the needs of the market to further consolidate market position.2.6.3
Features of Mega-Marketing ConceptCompared with the common marketing concepts, the mega-marketing concept has the following two characteristics:(1)
The mega-marketing idea breaks through the dividing line between the “control elements” and “non-control elements”, and stresses that corporate marketing activities can have an important impact on the environment to make the environment conducive to the direction of achieving business goals.(2)
The mega-marketing concept stresses the need of dealing with a lot of relationships in order to successfully carry out the regular marketing activities, thereby expanding the scope of the enterprise marketing.
2.7
Summary 市场营销观念是企业的管理人员对其营销活动的根本态度和看法，是企业开拓市场、实现经营管理和销售目标的根本指导思想，它概括了一个企业的经营态度和思维方式。企业的市场营销观念作为一种企业经营活动的指导思想，是随着企业经营实践的变化而不断发生变化的。迄今为止，企业的市场营销观念经历了6个发展阶段：生产观念、产品观念、推销观念、营销观念、社会市场营销观念和大市场营销观念。从市场营销观念演变过程可以看出，从推销观念到营销观念的发展是至关重要的一环，在此之前是以生产者为中心，不重视消费者的需求和欲望；在此之后则是以消费者和顾客为中心，企业以满足消费者的需求作为其生存的基础。社会市场营销观念和大市场营销观念都是以对市场为中心的市场营销观念的完善和发展。Key TermsMarketing Concept
Production Concept
Product Concept
Selling Concept
Marketing Concept
Social Marketing Concept
Mega-Marketing Concept 【案例】 “德力西”引出温州新模式
浙江有个温州，中国人大概没有不知道的。温州有个柳市镇，是全国低压电器生产基地。柳市镇有个德力西集团公司，德力西不仅是温州民营企业创新的“典范”，还在短短16年内创造出经济腾飞的奇迹，被经济界、理论界誉为“德力西现象”，新闻界更把“德力西现象”上升为一种“新温州模式”。
1999年底，作为民营企业的德力西整体并购了作为国有企业的杭州西子集团公司，用“温州新模式”对其进行改造，半年后就实现了扭亏为盈。 那么，“德力西现象”与“温州新模式”有什么联系？德力西集团成功的经验又是什么？ 传统的温州模式已经走到了尽头 传统温州模式的基本特点是，以家庭经营为基础，以市场为导向，以小镇为依托，以农村能人为骨干。它的局限性主要表现在以下几个方面。一是产权有障碍。分散经营的民营中小企业难以通过联合、重组、兼并、合并以及股份制改造等形式得以迅速扩张。
二是家族管理制度不适应现代企业制度。以血缘、亲缘为基础的家族管理制度随着企业规模的壮大，弊端愈加明显，特别是在人力资源的引进、配置、培养、储备等方面，家族管理制已成了严重的障碍。
三是经营方式落后。以产品经营为主要特征的传统经营模式，已在强大的竞争对手，尤其是世界强手面前显得软弱无力。
四是营销模式落后。专业市场和购销员包打天下的时代已一去不复返，日趋衰落的专业市场正是其真实的写照。
五是产品结构调整能力低，自主开发能力弱。以仿制为主的传统劳动密集型产品将面临更为激烈的竞争。
六是经营理念有局限性。以赢利为目的的经营理念已不适宜于现代社会的发展。一句话，温州模式的局限性归根结底还是观念的落后。
改革开放20多年后的今天，温州早已不是当年的温州，曾经缔造了温州模式的民营企业家们也不再满足于旧模式带给他们的利益，开始探索突破的途径，他们以温州人特有的开拓创新精神改写着温州模式，于是，一种新温州模式出现了，“德力西现象”就是“温州新模式”的代表。
和大多数温州民营企业的崛起一样，德力西也曾经历过那种旧的温州模式，但是，随着企业规模的壮大，弊端也愈加明显，德力西集团公司总裁胡成中痛感过去的经营方式行不通了，要继续发展就必须对自己和德力西过去一些非理性的成分进行否定，这也就是他要著书立说《企业集团创新论》的重要原因。
温州新模式——德力西现象的核心是什么 德力西现象的核心其实就是创新，一是不断创新，二是系统创新。纵观德力西的创新历程，比较温州其他民营企业，德力西在温州新模式的形成和发展过程中完全突破了原温州模式那种以家庭经营为基础的限制，走向了企业联合、兼并、重组、优化的集团化规模发展的道路。
调整了单纯以市场为导向的经营方式，走向了资产经营、资本经营的综合发展道路。改变了单纯以小城镇为依托的营销方式，走上了网络营销的道路。以农村“能人”为骨干的员工素质普遍得以提高，逐渐造就了一支具有现代智慧和理性思考的管理队伍。
业内专家称，“新温州模式”的本质特征可以概述为：以观念创新为核心，以网络营销为依托，以理性管理为基础，以规模效益求发展的一种新的经济运行模式。
先进生产力的发展常常要打破原有的模式。胡成中说：“德力西是在创新中发展起来的，还要通过创新来取得新的发展。”
他把德力西的创新归纳为6个方面。一是产权制度创新。德力西的产权制度历经4个阶段的变革。1984年到1990年，以家庭合伙制为主要形式，凭借“以质取胜”的经营理念和“船小好调头”的灵活机制，初步完成了原始积累。
1991年到1993年，进行股份制改造，实现了企业股份化，并正式启用德力西品牌，企业开始上规模，产品开始上档次，质量开始上水平。
1994年至1998年，将热销产品从车间中分离出来，进行专业化生产，并开始兼并企业，推进股份合作企业的战略性改组。
1998年至今，实现产权跨区域大规模延伸，主动参与国企改革，由母公司全资整体并购杭州西子集团，盘活了2.5亿元资产，使产权制度在集团化的基础上走向了社会化。
二是管理运行机制创新。德力西先后经历了从粗放的家庭工厂式管理到总厂式管理，再到股份合作制的公司化管理，进而到集团化管理的过程。
特别是自1998年开始，采用集团公司代表集团行使职权，推出董事局事业部制的“扁平式管理”体制，实行董事局领导下的总裁负责制，按照“高度集权、充分授权、有效监控、良性互动”的原则运行，有效缩短了管理半径，大大提高了工作效率。
三是技术与质量创新。德力西自进入90年代开始便逐步摆脱仿制国外知名产品的做法，注重加大技改投入和新产品开发力度，每年按销售额5%的比例提取科技开发资金，结果每年均有几十个具备知识产权的新产品问世。同时，积极建立企业内部技术创新体系，目前已是国内同行中率先通过ISO9001产品质量体系和ISO14001环境体系双认证的企业。
四是营销模式创新。随着品牌声誉的不断提高，1994年以后，德力西改变了传统的“游击战”、“运动战”的销售方式，把品牌资源与营销精英的优势互相嫁接，采取网络营销战略，快速推动企业产供销的良性循环，现已形成总部营销中心、省级销售总公司、地(市)级分销公司三级销售与管理的“金三角”产业构架体系。
五是经营方式创新。随着产权制度的变革和营销模式的转变，德力西的经营方式也在不断地升级，现已初步形成生产经营、资产经营、资本经营和品牌经营并举的格局。特别是1999年对国有杭州西子集团公司的并购成功以及上海高低压成套元件生产基地的建设投产，使德力西积累了进行大规模资本运作的经验。
六是企业文化创新。随着温州经济的不断发展，温州民营企业家的价值观也在不断发展的过程中出现蜕变，赢利不再是唯一的目标。德力西提出的“德报人类，力创未来”理念，说明胡成中已不满足于自我要求的目标，更加注重回报社会。(资料来源：曹刚，李桂陵，王德发等. 国内外市场营销案例. 武汉：武汉大学出版社，2003.)【案例分析】一些经济学家认为，“新温州模式”代表着中国经济体制改革的重要取向，是实施西部开发战略可以借鉴的重要方式。
随着民营企业参股、控股、并购国有企业的数量和规模越来越大，更多的国有中小困难企业将可以通过民营企业参与的方式走出困境。而国有企业民营化和民营企业社会化的趋势，也将使社会化的民营企业成为国民经济活动的主体。
在北京举行的一次记者座谈会上，胡成中曾说，德力西集团正在向中西部挺进，但今天的中西部开发不应再走当年温州的老路，应该站在一个更高的起点上。目前的西部犹如当年的温州，基础薄、条件差，因此，国家给予必要的支持是应该的，但中西部地区的群众应该学习温州人自力更生、奋发图强的精神，摆脱等、靠、要等陈旧观念，只有通过不断进取，才能抓住这一千载难逢的机会，实现经济的起飞和持续发展。
学者们也认为，温州的民营企业正在走向集团化、规模化和资产社会化，产品的档次和质量有了很大的提升，其中成功的经验不仅能够在中西部开发中发挥作用，而且可以成为实施西部开发战略的重要途径。
德力西的可贵之处在于摆脱了等、靠、要的陈旧观念，自力更生地实现了经济的快速持续发展。我国国有企业的改革正在向建立现代企业制度的纵深发展，德力西集团对产权制度、管理制度、经营方式和营销模式等方面进行的改革创新，为国有企业改革提供了很好的经验。
开发中西部地区，大批的温州民营企业家正在向那里进军，他们在温州成功的经验不仅能够在中西部开发中发挥作用，而且会带去温州人发展市场经济的经验和吃苦耐劳的精神。【思考题】1. 温州模式的转变反映了营销观念的哪些变化？为什么会发生这些变化？2. 德力西现象的核心是什么？3. 你从德力西现象中领悟到什么道理？
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